How to use Ehraf for comparative research
Here are some step-by-step instructions for how to conduct an investigation of the relationship between monumental architecture and ancestor worship using eHRAF Archaeology. Suppose your hypothesis is: Ancestor worship strongly influenced the initial construction of monumental architecture in early civilizations.
1. Define the terms "ancestor worship" and "monumental architecture." I recommend that you conduct a literature search outside of eHRAF in JSTOR or Anthrosource. Find an existing definition that matches your interests and understanding.
I found this definition for ancestor worship: "ancestor worship refers to the belief in, and often the propitiation [appeasement] of, the spirits of the dead" (Sheils 1975:428). I found this definition in a JSTOR search using the "Page Scan" link on the JSTOR search results page maintaining the quotation marks on "ancestor worship" and selecting "View list of pages with search term(s)".
I found this definition (using JSTOR) of monumental architecture: "Monumental architecture entails the labors of more than the minimal social unit to build, takes up significantly more space than other constructions, and commonly is elaborated by features, such as decorations, that distinguish it from non-monumental works" (Quilter and Vargas 1995:209).
2. Consider how you will know if ancestor worship and monumental architecture were present in an early civilization when you are reading about past civilizations/traditions in eHRAF or elsewhere. In other words, we want to be able to read about the past traditions and make our own judgments using our definitions of ancestor worship and monumental architecture.
Monumental architecture is easiest to identify because it is archaeologically detectable (we can see it and it is usually large!). Ancestor worship is more difficult; how will we know what people believed in or thought? The answer is---we need archaeological indicators of ancestor worship. Re-reading my definition of ancestor worship, I realize that it is too broad and could mean any time someone was buried in an archaeologically identified place, we could infer an ancestor was being worshiped. Thus, I decide to read more about ancestor worship and tighten my definition. My revised definition is: "Ancestor worship is a tradition in which matters of human concern are controlled (wholly or partly) by deceased ancestors." Since my definition was informed by a discussion in Colby 1976 (found using a JSTOR search) I will cite my definition this way: (after Colby 1976). Further reading on ancestor worship in other publications prompts me to use the following archaeological indicator of ancestor worship: the presence of disarticulated bodies/skeletons of people in homes. This is a limited and incomplete indicator but it will simplify our task and project.
3. Go to eHRAF Archaeology and search for information on ancestor worship, monumental architecture, and the archaeological indicators you have selected. There are two search methods.
Method 1. Search for the words "ancestor worship" and "monumental architecture" in eHRAF Archaeology. This is may, however, be a risky strategy. It relies on the assumption that authors/archaeologists that have research present in eHRAF used these exact words (e.g., "monumental architecture" and "ancestor worship") and your definitions in their written work. This is unlikely; thus, you risk missing examples of ancestor worship and monumental architecture among your traditions of interest. This method is further explained here (click link). Try it; inspect the documents your find. This method is similar to using the index at the back of a book to find a subject you are interested in.
Method 2. Use OCM Codes. This method (click link here for step-by-step instructions) relies on subject keywords and not specific terms like "ancestor worship." The best method will depend on your research question and search terms. I suggest trying both methods and seeing which produces more or better results to address your question.
4. Using Boolean operators (And, Or, Not), the wildcard symbol*, and phrases within quotation marks (“ ”) to refine your search.
AND Narrow a search and retrieve results containing all of the words it separate
OR Broaden a search and retrieve results containing any of the words it separates
NOT Narrow a search by omitting results that do not contain the word following NOT
“ ” Narrow a search to results that include the exact phrase encompassed by the quotation marks, while omitting results
that contain just part of that phrase (e.g. “evil eye” or “cross cousin”)
* Broaden a search to include all forms of a root word (e.g. ritual* yields ritual, rituals, ritualistic, ritualization, etc.)
5. You can "Narrow Results by Subsistence Type and Sample" depending on your research question. I do not recommend narrowing this search by "Simple Random Sample" because not enough information is available for your study. The decision to narrow results affects the sample from which you are deriving your sample and thus the generalizability of your results. If you decide that narrowing is justifiable and necessary there must be a logic to this decision. Since we are studying early civilizations and intensive agriculture is a characteristic of early civilization, we could narrow results to "Horticulture to Intensive Agriculture," "Horticulturalists," "Intensive Agriculturalists" and "Agro-pastoralists." Or, we could choose a tradition from each subregion. Write down the names of each tradition you will be investigating.
6. Next, examine the religious practices of each selected tradition. The best place to start this is with the "Browse TRADITIONS" tab. Search for the "Tradition Name," select "Tradition Summary" and read the "Religion and Expressive Culture" section. This section includes multiple sub-sections (e.g. Religious Beliefs, Religious Practices, etc.). Identify (on a coding sheet) the presence/absence of ancestor worship and when evidence of ancestor worship is first identified. You may or may not find the words "ancestor worship" and remember that we've decided to use "the presence of disarticulated bodies/skeletons of people in homes" as our archaeological indicator of ancestor worship. Record and take notes on your coding sheet. After reading the "Religion and Expressive Culture" section of a few traditions, you may decide to modify and improve your definitions of monumental architecture and ancestor worship. Modifying definitions is appropriate as long as your definitions are disclosed in your report and applied consistently throughout your study.
7. Calculate the number of traditions with monumental architecture with and without ancestor worship. The proportion of each will provide evidence to evaluate your hypothesis. You may also need to use a simple statistical test to determine if your hypothesis is supported by your results. Click here for an online calculator for a number of statistics.
1. Define the terms "ancestor worship" and "monumental architecture." I recommend that you conduct a literature search outside of eHRAF in JSTOR or Anthrosource. Find an existing definition that matches your interests and understanding.
I found this definition for ancestor worship: "ancestor worship refers to the belief in, and often the propitiation [appeasement] of, the spirits of the dead" (Sheils 1975:428). I found this definition in a JSTOR search using the "Page Scan" link on the JSTOR search results page maintaining the quotation marks on "ancestor worship" and selecting "View list of pages with search term(s)".
I found this definition (using JSTOR) of monumental architecture: "Monumental architecture entails the labors of more than the minimal social unit to build, takes up significantly more space than other constructions, and commonly is elaborated by features, such as decorations, that distinguish it from non-monumental works" (Quilter and Vargas 1995:209).
2. Consider how you will know if ancestor worship and monumental architecture were present in an early civilization when you are reading about past civilizations/traditions in eHRAF or elsewhere. In other words, we want to be able to read about the past traditions and make our own judgments using our definitions of ancestor worship and monumental architecture.
Monumental architecture is easiest to identify because it is archaeologically detectable (we can see it and it is usually large!). Ancestor worship is more difficult; how will we know what people believed in or thought? The answer is---we need archaeological indicators of ancestor worship. Re-reading my definition of ancestor worship, I realize that it is too broad and could mean any time someone was buried in an archaeologically identified place, we could infer an ancestor was being worshiped. Thus, I decide to read more about ancestor worship and tighten my definition. My revised definition is: "Ancestor worship is a tradition in which matters of human concern are controlled (wholly or partly) by deceased ancestors." Since my definition was informed by a discussion in Colby 1976 (found using a JSTOR search) I will cite my definition this way: (after Colby 1976). Further reading on ancestor worship in other publications prompts me to use the following archaeological indicator of ancestor worship: the presence of disarticulated bodies/skeletons of people in homes. This is a limited and incomplete indicator but it will simplify our task and project.
3. Go to eHRAF Archaeology and search for information on ancestor worship, monumental architecture, and the archaeological indicators you have selected. There are two search methods.
Method 1. Search for the words "ancestor worship" and "monumental architecture" in eHRAF Archaeology. This is may, however, be a risky strategy. It relies on the assumption that authors/archaeologists that have research present in eHRAF used these exact words (e.g., "monumental architecture" and "ancestor worship") and your definitions in their written work. This is unlikely; thus, you risk missing examples of ancestor worship and monumental architecture among your traditions of interest. This method is further explained here (click link). Try it; inspect the documents your find. This method is similar to using the index at the back of a book to find a subject you are interested in.
Method 2. Use OCM Codes. This method (click link here for step-by-step instructions) relies on subject keywords and not specific terms like "ancestor worship." The best method will depend on your research question and search terms. I suggest trying both methods and seeing which produces more or better results to address your question.
4. Using Boolean operators (And, Or, Not), the wildcard symbol*, and phrases within quotation marks (“ ”) to refine your search.
AND Narrow a search and retrieve results containing all of the words it separate
OR Broaden a search and retrieve results containing any of the words it separates
NOT Narrow a search by omitting results that do not contain the word following NOT
“ ” Narrow a search to results that include the exact phrase encompassed by the quotation marks, while omitting results
that contain just part of that phrase (e.g. “evil eye” or “cross cousin”)
* Broaden a search to include all forms of a root word (e.g. ritual* yields ritual, rituals, ritualistic, ritualization, etc.)
5. You can "Narrow Results by Subsistence Type and Sample" depending on your research question. I do not recommend narrowing this search by "Simple Random Sample" because not enough information is available for your study. The decision to narrow results affects the sample from which you are deriving your sample and thus the generalizability of your results. If you decide that narrowing is justifiable and necessary there must be a logic to this decision. Since we are studying early civilizations and intensive agriculture is a characteristic of early civilization, we could narrow results to "Horticulture to Intensive Agriculture," "Horticulturalists," "Intensive Agriculturalists" and "Agro-pastoralists." Or, we could choose a tradition from each subregion. Write down the names of each tradition you will be investigating.
6. Next, examine the religious practices of each selected tradition. The best place to start this is with the "Browse TRADITIONS" tab. Search for the "Tradition Name," select "Tradition Summary" and read the "Religion and Expressive Culture" section. This section includes multiple sub-sections (e.g. Religious Beliefs, Religious Practices, etc.). Identify (on a coding sheet) the presence/absence of ancestor worship and when evidence of ancestor worship is first identified. You may or may not find the words "ancestor worship" and remember that we've decided to use "the presence of disarticulated bodies/skeletons of people in homes" as our archaeological indicator of ancestor worship. Record and take notes on your coding sheet. After reading the "Religion and Expressive Culture" section of a few traditions, you may decide to modify and improve your definitions of monumental architecture and ancestor worship. Modifying definitions is appropriate as long as your definitions are disclosed in your report and applied consistently throughout your study.
7. Calculate the number of traditions with monumental architecture with and without ancestor worship. The proportion of each will provide evidence to evaluate your hypothesis. You may also need to use a simple statistical test to determine if your hypothesis is supported by your results. Click here for an online calculator for a number of statistics.
