Rise of civilization, research report 

Knowing how to investigate a problem using the comparative method is a skill that will be useful in your future.  In this activity, you will conduct your own cross-cultural research on a topic you select related to early civilizations.  

Procedure: 

First, make note of a preliminary hunch you have about one aspect of the issues we discuss in class and/or are discussed in your readings. Your hunch will probably concern some perceived pattern or relationship. For example, you might perceive a relationship between ancestor-based religions and early monumental architecture.  Now, time to research the issue.  What is known about the factors affecting the emergence of monumental architecture?  What is known about ancestor-based religions? Has anyone else investigated the relationship you have perceived?  Look at journal articles rather than just books as journal articles are more up-to-date. 

Carefully consider if there is any reason why ancestor-based religions and monumental architecture might be related; that is, that one might affect the other (this is very important!).  If you cannot think of a reason (or find one in the published literature on the subject), then you don't have a "mechanism" (and one might not exist).  Remember our class discussion of the temporal correlation between ice cream consumption in the summer and polio incidence---there is no mechanism for ice cream to cause polio.  Without a plausible mechanism for an actual relationship between the phenomena, you research is likely to be unproductive or result in temporal correlations not possible causal relationships. 

Second, formulate your hunch into a testable hypothesis.  An hypothesis is an educated (based on your preliminary research) guess that will guide your investigation.  Testable means both that the proposition is in principle amenable to verification by empirical knowledge, or evidence, and that a sufficient amount of such evidence is at hand.

Third, collect data to test your hypothesis. This is where you will use the eHRAF database (Archaeology or World Cultures). Choose between 5 and 10 early traditions or cultures that seem to be appropriate to test your hypothesis. For example, given the relationship above, you would probably want 10 randomly selected societies with monumental architecture.  For each of the 10 societies, examine their religious practices to see if they do or do not have ancestor worship. NOTE: It is not sufficient to rely upon eHRAF culture summaries as data sources. Use eHRAF primary sources only.  

Click here for some specific instructions on a step-by-step method of investigating the relationship between ancestor worship and monumental architecture.  This example will help you conduct similar analyses. 

Fourth, does the evidence support your hypothesis? You may or may not find support for your hypothesis. That doesn't matter; the data are what they are. You should be able to say something like the evidence strongly supports your hypothesis (most), there is good support (3/4), uncertain support (approximately 1/2), or poor support (fewer than 1/2).

Finally, offer an explanation of your findings. Why do you think the evidence points in the direction it does? Given the direction of the evidence, why do you think the relationship you proposed might be true (or why do you think your original hunch was wrong)? 

Your report must be structured with the following identified (use these headings in your paper) sections.  Don't forget to review the report evaluation criteria below.  

1.  Introduction (1-2 paragraphs):  

• Please include your research question, hypothesis, a brief statement of your results, and some general information to orient and excite your reader about your investigation.  Don't hesitate to use easy to follow sentences like, "The purpose of this report is to..." or "This report considers x to better understand y.  I make two arguments: first...second..."  
  
• Tell the reader why your investigation is important to our understanding of the rise of civilizations. 

2.  Background (1-2 paragraphs):  

• Please define your terms (e.g., ancestor worship and monumental architecture) and summarize what other researchers have found in similar investigations. Cite your sources using a consistent format: (author last name year:page number)---(Ingram 2013:24-28).  
  
• The purpose of the background section is to give the reader sufficient information to understand your research question, etc. and to situate your research in the context of other similar research.  Don't forget to identify the time period/s you are investigating in each civilization/tradition. 

3. Expectations and Mechanisms (1-2 paragraphs):  

• Describe what you expect to find in the data if your hypothesis is supported/not supported. What kind of relationship do you expect (positive, negative, or no relationship)?  Sample sentences you can use:  "My hypothesis will be supported if I find..." My hypothesis will not be supported if I find..." "I expect that as x increases, y will increase." 
• Discuss why it is reasonable to expect a relationship between your variables (e.g., why would ancestor worship influence decisions to build monumental architecture?).  Avoid investigating relationships between variables in which there is no reasonable mechanism of influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable.  For example, it makes no sense to investigate the influence of ancestor worship (independent variable) on the presence/absence of early metal tools (dependent variable).  

4.  Research Design and Methods (1-2 paragraphs):  

• Describe how you conducted your research.  Please provide enough information so the reader can evaluate whether or not your methods were sound.  You will need more than, "I used eHRAF to conduct my research".  This section is not a diary of your effort (e.g., "First, I looked in eHRAF but there was little information." Or, "I read 20 articles."). Provide information that will help your reader decide if your research design will yield reliable results.  Use professional, credibility-building language. 
• Describe and defend your data coding scheme (i.e., what is the difference between a 1 and a 5?). 
• Define your independent and dependent variables.  Remember that if your dependent variable does not vary you do not have an appropriate research design.  For example, it doesn't make sense to investigate the influence of agriculture on religion because all early civilizations practiced agriculture and some form of religion---thus, the variables don't vary.  (You could, however, narrowly define agriculture and religion to develop an effective research design.)  
• Describe and defend your sample---why are the civilizations/traditions you used to investigate the relationships appropriate for answering your research question? The quality and type of your sample will determine the generalizability of your results. 

5.  Results (3-5 paragraphs): 

• Support the written description of your results with data tables and/or figures and describe and interpret what the reader will see in the tables/graphs. If you don't have tables/figures to support your results you may have missed the objective of the activity. 
  
• Data tables must contain citations to where the data in the table came from.  This can be accomplished by adding a column that contains the citation (and adding something like, "Smith 2011" to a table cell).  A citation of "eHRAF" is not sufficient -- there is usually an author listed on the eHRAF page where you are getting your data.  If you have data from seven civilizations in a table, you will have at least seven citations in the table.  
• All tables should be named (e.g., Table 1. Description of Monumental Architecture in Early Civilizations) and referred to in the text (e.g., "see Table 1).   

6.  Discussion (2-3 paragraphs):  

• Please tell the reader what the significance of your findings are and why you think your results are the way they are.  
  
• Use this section to critique your research design.  How could it be improved to yield better results?  If you can't fix certain problems in your study, it is best to disclose them here.  

7.  Conclusion (1-2 paragraphs):  

• Summarize the most important insights you want your readers to remember after reading your report.  
  

8.  References cited:  

• List in a consistent bibliographic format the sources (articles, books, reports---mostly peer-reviewed!) you have relied on. The list of references cited should not be included in the page count (5-7 pages) of your report.   
  

The Research Report due on 20 November is not a draft of a final paper!  It should be complete and as strong as you can make it.  It is worth 25% of your course grade.  You will revise and improve this paper, based on my comments, for the Final.  The Final is also worth 25% of your grade.   Below is the rubric I use to evaluate research reports.

Please note that whenever you use the ideas or words of others, you must place a citation to that author/source in your text. Otherwise, you will be committing plagarism (a violation of the University's Honor Code).  Our library has an excellent tutorial on citing your sources and I encourage you to review it:  click here.  In text citations should be (Author last name year:page number). 

Please note that most Friday classes will be devoted to learning the methods of comparative analysis that you will use to produce your research report.  If you are having trouble thinking of a topic and question to research, here are some ideas.  

The paper should be between 5 and 7 double-spaced pages long.  This means that 4 pages are too few and 10 pages are too many.  Please submit as a Microsoft Word document.  Late submission will result in a loss of 10% of the total point value for each 24 hour period the paper is late.  

This activity was inspired by and adapted from the eHRAF website and developed by Vicki Bentley-Condit, Department of Anthropology, Grinnell College, IA.

Research Report Evaluation Criteria

Components	Excellent	Good	Fair	Poor	Points
Understanding   (The most important objective of any written communication is that the audience understands what the author is trying to communicate.)	The author’s paper is understandable by a college-level audience.    Overly long sentences (those that span more than 3 lines), undefined terms, and grammatical errors are minimal to nonexistent. (5 points)	The author’s paper is generally understandable by a college-level audience.    Some overly long sentences, undefined terms, and grammatical errors but none significantly distracting. (4 points)	The author’s paper is likely confusing to a college-level audience.    Many overly long sentences, undefined terms, and grammatical errors that likely create misunderstanding.  (1 points)	The author’s paper is likely to confuse any audience.      Overly long sentences, undefined terms, and grammatical errors significantly threaten understanding. (0 points)
Comments:
Organization   (In what order does the reader need to know and understand the different parts of your research?  Some information or parts of your report must precede or follow other parts so that you are understood. The eight components I have provided in the activity description comprise the structure of scientific reports produced world-wide.)	The report contains each of the eight sections specified in the activity description.   All content within each section fits the purpose of the section.      All sentences within each paragraph support or explain the paragraph’s topic sentence.  (4 points)	The report contains each of the eight sections specified in the activity description.   Most content within each section fits the purpose of the section.      Most sentences within each paragraph support or explain the paragraph’s topic sentence.  (3 points)	The report contains each of the eight sections specified in the activity description.   Some content within each section fits the purpose of the section.      Some sentences within each paragraph support or explain the paragraph’s topic sentence.  (2 points)	The report does not contain all of the eight identified sections.    The text is a seemingly random sequence of thoughts presented in a confusing manner.  (0 points)
Comments:
Comparative Method (Research Design)   (We have spent considerable time this semester learning about the comparative method as a way of gaining insights into a problem.  This report is your opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of the method.)	The author’s research design demonstrates a strong understanding of comparative methods to gain insights about the past. (4 points)	The author’s research design demonstrates reasonable understanding of comparative methods to gain insights about the past. (3 points)	The author’s research design demonstrates very limited understanding of comparative methods to gain insights about the past.  (1 points)	The author’s research demonstrates little to no understanding of comparative methods to gain insights about the past.  Or, the author did not use comparative methods.   (0 points)
Comments:
Results Informed by Data   (The comparative method relies on data to inform understanding.)	Results and conclusions presented in the report are all informed by the data provided in eHRAF or comparable peer-reviewed sources.  (4 points)	Results and conclusions presented in the report are somewhat informed by the data provided in eHRAF or comparable peer-reviewed sources. (3 points)	Results and conclusions presented in the report are barely informed by the data provided in eHRAF or comparable peer-reviewed sources. (1 points)	Results and conclusions do not rely on data provided in eHRAF or comparable peer-reviewed sources or do not make sense.  (0 points)
Comments:
Figures and Tables   (All figures and tables must support your effort to explain your research and conclusions.  For each figure or table you include, ask yourself:  “is this necessary, does this promote understanding or advance my argument?”)	All figures and tables are clearly readable, axes clearly labeled, titles represent content, and each figure/table contributes to understanding or supporting the author’s research. (4 points)	Most figures and tables are clearly readable, axes clearly labeled, titles represent content, and each figure/table contributes to understanding or supporting the author’s research. (3 points)	Significant problems with readability, clarity, and content of figures and tables.   (1 points)	No figures or tables or those provided are unreadable, unclear, or unprofessional.  Or, figures and graphs seems like “filler”to meet page length or content requirements. (Points: 0)
Comments:
Sources and Citations   (The sources you use provide the reader with evidence of the rigor and veracity of your argument.    The insights of others must always be properly cited.)	All ideas that are not the author’s unique intellectual insight or common knowledge are cited.    Credible (peer-reviewed) sources were exclusively relied on to support the author’s research. A consistent citation format was implemented.  (4 points)	Most ideas that are not the author’s unique intellectual insight or common knowledge are cited.   Many credible (peer-reviewed) sources were relied on to support the author’s research.  A consistent citation format was implemented.  (3 points)	The author’s unique intellectual insights might be the insights of others—it is difficult to tell because few citations are used. Few credible (peer-reviewed) sources were relied on to support the author’s research. A consistent citation format was not evident.  (1 points)	Many of the author’s insights appear to be taken from the ideas of others.   Credible (peer-reviewed) sources not used.  Citation format was inconsistent and did not conform to any appropriate style guide. (0 points)
Comments:
TOTAL POINTS					0